This is an outdated version published on 2026-04-02. Read the most recent version.

Combining Geographical Indication Labels With Nutri-Scores: Preferences of German and Dutch Consumers

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.52825/gjae.v75i.2743

Keywords:

Food Labelling, Geographical Indications, Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Nutri-Score, Discrete Choice Experiment

Abstract

The introduction of a harmonised front-of-pack nutrition label remains a timely and contentious issue within EU policy debates. However, the effects of colour-coded candidates such as the Nutri-Score in combination with other prominent EU food labels such as Geographical Indications (GIs) remain underexplored – particularly, in northern European contexts and in a scenario of mandatory Nutri-Scores. To address this gap, we conduct a discrete choice experiment with over 800 German and Dutch respondents to quantify the willingness to pay for these labels. We find that consumers are willing to pay a premium of 72 cents for GI-labelled Parma ham and 48 cents for a Nutri-Score D rather than E. Consumers also prefer the combination of GI hams with a comparatively better Nutri-Score D but the interaction between the two labels is not significant, indicating no strong interplay between them in our experiment.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

AND-International (2019): Economic value of EU quality schemes, geographical indications and traditional specialities guaranteed. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2762/396490.

AND-International (2020): Evaluation support study on Geographical Indications and Tradi-tional Specialities Guaranteed protected in the EU. Publications Office of the European Un-ion. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2762/891024.

Arfini, F., Mancini, M.C. (2015): The effect of information and co-branding strategies on con-sumers willingness to pay (WTP) for Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) products: the case of pre-sliced Parma Ham. Progress in Nutrition Journal 17 (1): 15-22. https://air.unipr.it/handle/11381/2787011.

Becker, M.W., Bello, N.M., Sundar, R.P., Peltier, C., Bix, L. (2015): Front of pack labels en-hance attention to nutrition information in novel and commercial brands. Food Policy 56: 76-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.08.001.

Bliemer, M.C.J., Rose, J.M. (2024): Designing and conducting stated choice experiments. In: Hess, S., A. Daly (Eds.): The handbook of choice modelling. 2nd ed. Edward Elgar Pu-blishing, Cheltenham, UK. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800375635.00013.

Borrillo, M. (2021): Nutriscore, patatine fritte più salutari dell’olio. Patuanelli: Italia contraria. Corriere Della Sera. https://www.corriere.it/economia/consumi/21_novembre_15/nutriscore-patatine-fritte-piu-salutari-dell-olio-patuanelli-italia-contraria-743ece18-4605-11ec-9a24-28e7c2e627b2.shtml.

BMLEH (Bundesministerium für Landwirtschaft, Ernährung und Heimat) (2025): Nutri-Score. https://www.bmleh.de/EN/topics/food-and-nutrition/food-labelling/extended-nutritional-labelling-system-nutri-score.html.

BMEL (Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft) (2020): Nutri-Score. https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/ernaehrung/lebensmittel-kennzeichnung/freiwillige-angaben-und-label/nutri-score/nutri-score_node.html#:~:text=Mehr-,Hilfestellung%20f%C3%BCr%20Unternehmen%20%E2%80%93%20Einf%C3%BChrung%20des%20Nutri%2DScore,des%20Lebensmittelkennzeichens%20in%20Deutschland%20m%C3%B6glich.

Caputo, V., Scarpa, R. (2022): Methodological advances in food choice experiments and modeling: Current practices, challenges, and future research directions. Annual Review of Resource Economics 14 (1): 63-90. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-023242.

Costanigro, M., McCluskey, J.J., Goemans, C. (2010): The economics of nested names: Name specificity, reputations, and price premia. American Journal of Agricultural Econom-ics 92 (5)_ 1339-1350. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aaq065.

Cummings, R.G., Taylor, L.O. (1999): Unbiased value estimates for environmental goods: A cheap talk dettps://doi.org.sign for the contingent valuation method. American Economic Review 89 (3): 649-65. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.3.649.

De Bauw, M., Franssens, S., Vranken, L. (2022): Trading off environmental attributes in food consumption choices. Food Policy 112: 102338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102338.

De Bauw, M., Matthys, C., Poppe, V., Franssens, S., Vranken, L. (2021): A combined Nutri-Score and “Eco-Score” approach for more nutritious and more environmentally friendly food choices? Evidence from a consumer experiment in Belgium. Food Quality and Preference 93: 104276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104276.

Delhomme, V. (2024): Rethinking Consumer Empowerment: New Directions for Sustainable Food Law in an Era of EU Discontent. European Journal of Risk Regulation 15 (2): 232-252. https://doi.org/doi:10.1017/err.2024.42.

Deselnicu, O.C., Costanigro, M., Souza-Monteiro, D.M., Thilmany McFadden, D. (2013): A meta-analysis of geographical indication food valuation studies: What drives the premium for origin-based labels? Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 38 (2): 204-219. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.158285.

Drugova, T., Curtis, K.R., Akhundjanov, S.B. (2020): Are multiple labels on food products beneficial or simply ignored? Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue Cana-dienne d’agroeconomie 68 (4) : 411-427. https://doi.org/10.1111/cjag.12259.

eAmbrosia (2023): The EU geographical indications register. https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/geographical-indications-register/.

EC (European Commission) (2020): Farm to Fork Strategy. https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en.

EFA (European Food Agency) (2022): Nutri-Score banned by Italian anti-trust authority. https://www.efanews.eu/item/26073-nutri-score-banned-by-italian-anti-trust-authority.html.

Egnell, M., Galan, P., Farpour-Lambert, N.J., Talati, Z., Pettigrew, S., Hercberg, S., Julia, C. (2020): Compared to other front-of-pack nutrition labels, the Nutri-Score emerged as the most efficient to inform Swiss consumers on the nutritional quality of food products. PLOS ONE 15 (2): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228179.

EP (European Parliament) (2024): News: MEPs improve EU protection for quality agricultural products. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20240223IPR18089/meps-improve-eu-protection-for-quality-agricultural-products.

Eurostat (2022): Comparative price levels for food, beverages and tobacco. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Comparative_price_levels_for_food,_beverages_and_tobacco.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2021): The nutrition and health potential of geographical indication foods. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb3913en.

Fortuna, G., Dahm, J., Foote, N. (2022, Febr. 11): Agrifood Brief: The last score that broke the label’s back. EURACTIV. https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/agrifood-brief-the-last-score-that-broke-the-labels-back/.

Fortuna, G. (2024, May 3): EU Policy: Italy to challenge Nutri-Score with constitution. Eu-ronews. https://www.euronews.com/health/2024/05/03/italy-to-challenge-nutri-score-with-constitution.

Garavaglia, C., Mariani, P. (2017): How much do consumers value Protected Designation of Origin certifications? Estimates of willingness to pay for PDO dry-cured ham in Italy. Agri-business 33 (3): 403-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/agr.21494.

Gassler, B., Faesel, C.K., Moeser, A. (2022): Toward a differentiated understanding of the effect of Nutri‐Score nutrition labeling on healthier food choices. Agribusiness 39 (1): 28-50. https://doi.org/10.1002/agr.21762.

Gerini, F., Alfnes, F., Schjøll, A. (2016): Organic- and animal welfare-labelled eggs: Competing for the same consumers? Journal of Agricultural Economics 67 (2): 471-490. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12154.

Gracia, A., de-Magistris, T. (2016): Consumer preferences for food labeling: What ranks first? Food Control 61: 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.09.023.

Grunert, K.G., Aachmann, K. (2016): Consumer reactions to the use of EU quality labels on food products: A review of the literature. Food Control 59: 178-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.05.021.

Gunlock, J. (2015, Jan. 24): Food labeling fatigue. Huffington Post. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/food-labeling-fatigue_b_6215052.

Hagmann, D., Siegrist, M. (2020): Nutri-Score, multiple traffic light and incomplete nutrition labelling on food packages: Effects on consumers’ accuracy in identifying healthier snack options. Food Quality and Preference 83: 103894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.103894.

Höhn, G.L., Huysmans, M., Crombez, C. (2023): Healthy food traditions? Nutritional quality and food composition of EU geographical indications. Q Open 3 (1): qoad014. https://doi.org/10.1093/qopen/qoad014.

Höhn, G.L., Huysmans, M., Crombez, C. (2024): Does terroir size matter? Protected geo-graphical areas and prices of European hams. Regional Studies 58 (10): 1804-1817. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2023.2187365.

Huysmans, M., van Noord, D., Höhn, G.L. (2025): Do geographical indications certify origin and quality? In: Vandecandelaere, E., Marie-Vivien, D., Thévenod-Mottet, E., Bouhaddane, M., Pieprzownik, V., Tartanac, F., Puzone, I. (Eds.): Worldwide perspectives on geograph-ical indications (13-23). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-71641-6_2.

Iotti, M., Manghi, E., Bonazzi, G. (2023): Financial performance of companies associated with the PDO Parma ham consortium: Analysis by quartile of firms. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13: 100589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100598.

Julia, C., Hercberg, S. (2017): Development of a new front-of-pack nutrition label in France: The five- colour Nutri-Score. Public Health Panorama 3 (4): 712-725. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/325207/php-3-4-712-725-eng.pdf.

Jumbo (2022): Gezonde producten. https://www.jumborapportage.com/in-cijfers/gezondheid/gezonde-producten.

Konrad, J. (2023, January 27): Discounter hängen Supermärkte ab. Lebensmittel Zeitung. https://www.lebensmittelzeitung.net/handel/nachrichten/consumer-index-der-gfk-discounter-haengen-supermaerkte-ab-169349?crefresh=1.

Kos Skubic, M., Erjavec, K., Klopčič, M. (2018): Consumer preferences regarding national and EU quality labels for cheese, ham and honey: The case of Slovenia. British Food Journal 120 (3): 650-664. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-04-2017-0236.

Lancaster, K.J. (1966): A new approach to consumer theory. Journal of Political Economy 74 (2): 132-157. https://doi.org/10.1086/259131.

Lemken, D., Zühlsdorf, A., Spiller, A. (2021): Improving consumers’ understanding and use of carbon footprint labels on food: Proposal for a climate score label. EuroChoices 20 (2): 23-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12321.

Leufkens, D. (2018): The problem of heterogeneity between protected geographical indica-tions: A meta-analysis. British Food Journal 120 (12): 2843-2856. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-12-2017-0710.

Lizin, S., Rousseau, S., Kessels, R., Meulders, M., Pepermans, G., Speelman, S., Vandebroek, M., Van Den Broeck, G., Van Loo, E.J., Verbeke, W. (2022): The state of the art of discrete choice experiments in food research. Food Quality and Preference 102: 104678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104678.

Loureiro, M.L., McCluskey, J.J. (2000): Assessing consumer response to protected geograph-ical identification labeling. Agribusiness 16 (3): 309-320. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6297(200022)16:3%3C309::AID-AGR4%3E3.0.CO;2-G.

Louviere, J.J., Woodworth, G. (1983): Design and analysis of simulated consumer choice or allocation experiments: An approach based on aggregate data. Journal of Marketing Re-search 20 (4): 350-367. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378302000403.

Mazzocchi, C., Orsi, L., Zilia, F., Costantini, M., Bacenetti, J. (2022): Consumer awareness of sustainable supply chains: A choice experiment on Parma ham PDO. Science of The Total Environment 836: 155602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155602.

Mérel, P., Sexton, R.J. (2012): Will geographical indications supply excessive quality? Euro-pean Review of Agricultural Economics 39 (4): 567-587. https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbr056.

Messer, K.D., Costanigro, M., Kaiser, H.M. (2017): Labeling food processes: The good, the bad and the ugly. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 39 (3): 407-427. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppx028.

McFadden, D. (1974): Conditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behavior. In: Zarembka, P. (Ed.), Frontiers in econometrics: 105-142. Academic Press, New York. https://search.library.ucla.edu/permalink/01UCS_LAL/1763hao/alma9936335433606533.

Menapace, L., Raffaelli, R. (2020): Unraveling hypothetical bias in discrete choice experi-ments. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 176: 416-430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.04.020.

Moschini, G.C., Menapace, L., Pick, D. (2008): Geographical indications and the competitive provision of quality in agricultural markets. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90 (3): 794-812. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8276.2008.01142.x.

Palan, S., Schitter, C. (2018): Prolific.ac - A subject pool for online experiments. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance 17: 22-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbef.2017.12.004.

Parma (Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma) (2023a): Export area: European Union. https://www.prosciuttodiparma.com/en/european-union/.

Parma (Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma) (2023b): Preparation of Parma ham: Nutritional information. https://www.prosciuttodiparma.com/en/preparation-of-parma-ham/.

Parma (Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma) (2025): Consortium: Economic figures. https://www.prosciuttodiparma.com/en/parma-ham-consortium/.

Penn, J.M., Hu, W. (2018): Understanding hypothetical bias: An enhanced meta‐analysis. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 100(4), 1186-1206. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay021.

Profeta, A., Balling, R., Will, S. (2011): The relevance of certification marks and geographical indications when buying beef - Results of a representative consumer study in Bavaria.

German Journal of Agricultural Economics 60 (2): 71-84. https://doi.org/10.52825/gjae.v60i2.1836.

Qualivita (2022): AFIDOP, i formaggi DOP italiani uniti: Nutri-score ingannevole, penalizza prodotti certificati e sana alimentazione. https://www.qualivita.it/news/afidop-i-formaggi-dop-italiani-uniti-nutri-score-ingannevole-penalizza-prodotti-certificati-e-sana-alimentazione/.

Qualivita (2023): Rapporto Ismea-Qualivita 2022 sulle produzioni agroalimentari e vitivinicole italiane DOP IGP STG. https://www.qualivita.it/osservatorio/rapporto-ismea-qualivita/#toggle-id-1.

Retailtrends (2013): Consument niet prijsbewust, wel prijsgevoelig. https://retailtrends.nl/news/32123/consument-niet-prijsbewust-wel-prijsgevoelig.

Retailtrends (2022): Discounters winnen marktaandeel. https://retailtrends.nl/news/67891/discounters-winnen-marktaandeel.

Reul, M. (2025): Expansion earns Albert Heijn market share growth despite tobacco ban. Re-tailDetail. https://www.retaildetail.eu/news/food/expansion-earns-albert-heijn-market-share-growth-despite-tobacco-ban/.

REWE (2022): Nutri-Score. https://www.rewe.de/ernaehrung/nutri-score/.

Rijksoverheid (2023): Invoering Nutri-Score om gezonde voeding te stimuleren. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/voeding/gezonde-voeding/nieuw-voedselkeuzelogo-nutri-score/invoering-nutri-score.

Robinson, N. (2025): Europe’s Nutri-score war rumbles on as retailers back the scheme. FoodNavigator Europe. https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2025/04/15/food-manufacturers-and-retailers-at-nutri-score-loggerheads/.

Roquefort (2022): #Roquefortsansnutriscore. https://www.roquefort.fr/nutri-score/.

San Daniele (2022): San Daniele is healthy. https://prosciuttosandaniele.it/en/the-ham/san-daniele-is-healthy/.

Sonntag, W.I., Lemken, D., Spiller, A., Schulze, M. (2023): Welcome to the (label) jungle? Analyzing how consumers deal with intra-sustainability label trade-offs on food. Food Quali-ty and Preference 104: 104746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104746.

Statista (2013): Preissensibilität von Konsumenten in Deutschland und ausgewählten Ländern weltweit 2013. https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/273141/umfrage/preissensibilitaet-von-konsumenten-in-deutschland-und-ausgewaehlten-laendern-weltweit/.

Stiletto, A., Trestini, S. (2022): Is it really a piece of cake to label geographical indications with the Nutri-Score? Consumers’ behaviour and policy implications. PLOS ONE 17 (11): e0277048. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277048.

Stiletto, A., Cembalo, L., Trestini, S. (2024a): All that glitters is not gold: The impact of the Nu-tri-Score label on food with geographical indication. Agricultural and Food Economics 12: 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-024-00337-3.

Stiletto, A., Vecchio, R., Cembalo, L., Trestini, S. (2024b): The impact of Nutri-Score on con-sumers’ preferences for geographical indications. Evidence from a non-hypothetical exper-iment. Appetite 199: 107400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2024.107400.

Stranieri, S., Casati, M., Soregaroli, C., Varacca, A. (2025): Nutriscore’s impact on purchase intention for products with geographical indications: a Bayesian causal mediation analysis. Food Policy 135: 102942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.102942.

Teuber, R. (2011): Consumers’ and producers’ expectations towards geographical indications: Empirical evidence for a German case study. British Food Journal 113 (7): 900-918. https://doi.org/10.1108/00070701111148423.

TESEO (TESEO by CLAL.it) (2025): Italy: Prosciutto di Parma Exports (kg). https://teseo.clal.it/en/en/en/en/?section=export-prosciutto-parma&udm=kg&utm.

Török, Á, Gorton, M., Yeh, C.-H., Czine, P., Balogh, P. (2022): Understanding consumers’ preferences for protected geographical indications: A choice experiment with Hungarian sausage consumers. Foods 11: 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11070997.

Train, K.E. (2009): Discrete choice methods with simulation. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511805271.

Vandevijvere, S. (2020): Uptake of Nutri-Score during the first year of implementation in Bel-gium. Archives of Public Health 78: 107. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00492-1.

van Doorn, J., Verhoef, P.C. (2011): Willingness to pay for organic products: Differences be-tween virtue and vice foods. International Journal of Research in Marketing 28 (3): 167-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.02.005.

van Ittersum, K., Meulenberg, M.T.G., van Trijp, H.C.M., Candel, M.J.J.M. (2007): Consumers’ appreciation of regional certification labels: A pan-European study. Journal of Agricultural Economics 58 (1): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2007.00080.x.

von Massow, M. (2019): We are reaching label fatigue. Food Focus. https://www.foodfocusguelph.ca/post/we-are-reaching-label-fatigue.

Walker, J.L., Wang, Y., Thorhauge, M., Ben-Akiva, M. (2018): D-efficient or deficient? A ro-bustness analysis of stated choice experimental designs. Theory and Decision 84 (2): 215-238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-017-9647-3.

Published

2026-04-02

Versions

How to Cite

Höhn, G. L., Huysmans, M., & Crombez, C. (2026). Combining Geographical Indication Labels With Nutri-Scores: Preferences of German and Dutch Consumers. German Journal of Agricultural Economics, 75. https://doi.org/10.52825/gjae.v75i.2743
Received 2025-05-12
Accepted 2025-12-08
Published 2026-04-09

Funding data

  • KU Leuven
    Grant numbers KU Leuven - Long term structural funding (Methusalem funding) by the Flemish Government
  • Universiteit Utrecht
    Grant numbers Pathways to Sustainability at Utrecht University